Tacit knowledge (as opposed to formal, codified or
explicit knowledge)
is the kind of knowledge that is difficult to transfer to another
person by means of writing it down or verbalizing it. For example,
stating to someone that London is in the United Kingdom is a piece of
explicit knowledge that can be written down, transmitted, and understood
by a recipient. However, the ability to speak a language, use algebra,
[1]
or design and use complex equipment requires all sorts of knowledge
that is not always known explicitly, even by expert practitioners, and
which is difficult or impossible to explicitly transfer to other users.
While tacit knowledge appears to be simple, it has far reaching consequences and is not widely understood.
Definition
The term “tacit knowing” or “tacit knowledge” was first introduced into philosophy by
Michael Polanyi in 1958 in his magnum opus
Personal Knowledge. He famously introduces the idea in his later work
The Tacit Dimension with the assertion that “we can know more than we can tell.”.
[2]
According to him, not only is the knowledge that cannot be adequately
articulated by verbal means, but also all knowledge is rooted in tacit
knowledge in the strong sense of that term.
With tacit knowledge, people are not often aware of the knowledge
they possess or how it can be valuable to others. Effective transfer of
tacit knowledge generally requires extensive personal contact, regular
interaction
[3]
and trust. This kind of knowledge can only be revealed through practice
in a particular context and transmitted through social networks.
[4] To some extent it is "captured" when the knowledge holder joins a network or a community of practice.
[5]
Some examples of daily activities and tacit knowledge are: riding a
bike, playing the piano, driving a car, and hitting a nail with a
hammer.
[6]
The formal knowledge of how to ride a bicycle is that in order to
balance, if the bike falls to the left, one steers to the left. To turn
right the rider first steers to the left, and then when the bike falls
right, the rider steers to the right.
[7]
You may know explicitly how turning of the handle bars or steering
wheel change the direction of a bike or car, but you cannot
simultaneously focus on this and at the same time orientate yourself in
traffic.
Similarly, you may know explicitly how to hold the handle of a
hammer, but you cannot simultaneously focus on the handle and hit the
nail correctly with the hammer. The master pianist can perform
brilliantly, but if he begins to concentrate on the movements of his
fingers instead of the music, he will not be able to play as a master.
Knowing the explicit knowledge, however, is no help in riding a bicycle,
doesn’t help in performing well in the tasks since few people are aware
of it when performing and few riders are in fact aware of this.
Tacit knowledge is not easily shared. Although it is that which is
used by all people, it is not necessarily able to be easily articulated.
It consists of beliefs, ideals, values, schemata and mental models
which are deeply ingrained in us and which we often take for granted.
While difficult to articulate, this cognitive dimension of tacit
knowledge shapes the way we perceive the world.
In the field of knowledge management, the concept of tacit knowledge
refers to a knowledge possessed only by an individual and difficult to
communicate to others via words and symbols. Therefore, an individual
can acquire tacit knowledge without language. Apprentices, for example,
work with their mentors and learn craftsmanship not through language but
by observation, imitation, and practice.
The key to acquiring tacit knowledge is experience. Without some form
of shared experience, it is extremely difficult for people to share
each other's thinking processes
[8]
Tacit knowledge has been described as “know-how” - as opposed to
“know-what” (facts), “know-why” (science), or “know-who” (networking)
[citation needed].
It involves learning and skill but not in a way that can be written
down. On this account knowing-how or embodied knowledge is
characteristic of the expert, who acts, makes judgments, and so forth
without explicitly reflecting on the principles or rules involved. The
expert works without having a theory of his or her work; he or she just
performs skillfully without deliberation or focused attention
[9]
Tacit knowledge vs. Explicit knowledge:
[10]
Although it is possible to distinguish conceptually between explicit
and tacit knowledge, they are not separate and discrete in practice. The
interaction between these two modes of knowing is vital for the
creation of new knowledge.
[11]
Differences with explicit knowledge
Tacit knowledge can be distinguished from explicit knowledge in three major areas:
- Codifiability and mechanism of transferring knowledge: while
explicit knowledge can be codified, and easily transferred without the
knowing subject, tacit knowledge is intuitive and unarticulated
knowledge cannot be communicated, understood or used without the
‘knowing subject’. Unlike the transfer of explicit knowledge, the
transfer of tacit knowledge requires close interaction and the buildup
of shared understanding and trust among them.
- Main methods for the acquisition and accumulation: Explicit
knowledge can be generated through logical deduction and acquired
through practical experience in the relevant context. In contrast, tacit
knowledge can only be acquired through practical experience in the
relevant context.
- Potential of aggregation and modes of appropriation: Explicit
knowledge can be aggregated at a single location, stored in objective
forms and appropriated without the participation of the knowing subject.
Tacit knowledge in contrast, is personal contextual. It is
distributive, and cannot easily be aggregated. The realization of its
full potential requires the close involvement and cooperation of the
knowing subject.
The process of transforming tacit knowledge into explicit or
specifiable knowledge is known as codification, articulation, or
specification. The tacit aspects of knowledge are those that cannot be
codified, but can only be transmitted via training or gained through
personal experience.
Transmission models for tacit knowledge
A chief practice of technological development is the codification of
tacit knowledge into explicit programmed operations so that processes
previously requiring skilled employees can be automated for greater
efficiency and consistency at lower cost. Such codification involves
mechanically replicating the performance of persons who possess relevant
tacit knowledge; in doing so, however, the ability of the skilled
practitioner to innovate and adapt to unforeseen circumstances based on
the tacit "feel" of the situation is often lost. The technical remedy is
to attempt to substitute brute-force methods capitalizing on the
computing power of a system, such as those that enable a supercomputer
programmed to "play" chess against a grandmaster whose tacit knowledge
of the game is broad and deep.
The conflicts demonstrated in the previous two paragraphs are
reflected in Ikujiro Nonaka's model of organizational knowledge
creation, in which he proposes that tacit knowledge can be converted to
explicit knowledge. In that model tacit knowledge is presented variously
as uncodifiable ("tacit aspects of knowledge are those that cannot be
codified") and codifiable ("transforming tacit knowledge into explicit
knowledge is known as codification"). This ambiguity is common in the
knowledge management literature.
Nonaka's view may be contrasted with Polanyi's original view of
"tacit knowing." Polanyi believed that while declarative knowledge may
be needed for acquiring skills, it is unnecessary for using those skills
once the novice becomes an expert. And indeed, it does seem to be the
case that, as Polanyi argued, when we acquire a skill we acquire a
corresponding understanding that defies articulation
[12]
Examples
- One of the most convincing examples of tacit knowledge is facial
recognition. ‘‘We know a person’s face, and can recognize it among a
thousand, indeed a million. Yet we usually cannot tell how we recognize a
face we know, so most of this cannot be put into words.’’. When you see
a face you are not conscious about your knowledge of the individual
features (eye, nose, mouth), but you see and recognize the face as a
whole [13]
- Another example of tacit knowledge is the notion of language
itself—it is not possible to learn a language just by being taught the
rules of grammar—a native speaker picks it up at a young age almost
entirely unaware of the formal grammar which they may be taught later.
Other examples are how to ride a bike, how tight to make a bandage, or
knowing whether a senior surgeon feels an intern may be ready to learn
the intricacies of surgery; this can only be learned through personal
experimentation.
- Collins showed [14]
that a particular laser (The ppTEA laser) was designed in America and
the idea, with specific assistance from the designers, was gradually
propagated to various other universities world-wide. However, in the
early days, even when specific instructions were sent, other labs failed
to replicate the laser, it only being made to work in each case
following a visit to or from the originating lab or very close contact
and dialogue. It became clear that while the originators could clearly
make the laser work, they did not know exactly what it was that they
were doing to make it work, and so could not articulate or specify it by
means of monologue articles and specifications. But a cooperative
process of dialogue enabled the tacit knowledge to be transferred.
- Another example is the Bessemer steel process
— Bessemer sold a patent for his advanced steel making process and was
sued by the purchasers who couldn't get it to work. In the end Bessemer
set up his own steel company because he knew how to do it, even though
he could not convey it to his patent users. Bessemer's company became
one of the largest in the world and changed the face of steel making.[15]
- As apprentices learn the craft of their masters through observation,
imitation, and practice, so do employees of a firm learn new skills
through on-the-job training. When Matsushita started developing its
automatic home bread-making machine in 1985, an early problem was how to
mechanize the dough-kneading process, a process that takes a master
baker years of practice to perfect. To learn this tacit knowledge, a
member of the software development team, Ikuko Tanaka, decided to
volunteer herself as an apprentice to the head baker of the Osaka
International Hotel, who was reputed to produce the area’s best bread.
After a period of imitation and practice, one day she observed that the
baker was not only stretching but also twisting the dough in a
particular fashion (“twisting stretch”), which turned out to be the
secret for making tasty bread. The Matsushita home bakery team drew
together eleven members from completely different specializations and
cultures: product planning, mechanical engineering, control systems, and
software development. The “twisting stretch” motion was finally
materialized in a prototype after a year of iterative experimentation by
the engineers and team members working closely together, combining
their explicit knowledge. For example, the engineers added ribs to the
inside of the dough case in order to hold the dough better as it is
being churned. Another team member suggested a method (later patented)
to add yeast at a later stage in the process, thereby preventing the
yeast from over-fermenting in high temperatures.[16]
Knowledge management
According to
Parsaye, there are three major approaches to the capture of tacit knowledge from groups and individuals. They are:
[17]
- Interviewing experts.
- Learning by being told.
- Learning by observation.
Interviewing experts can be done in the form of
structured interviewing or by recording organizational
stories.
Structured interviewing of experts in a particular subject is the most
commonly used technique to capture pertinent, tacit knowledge. An
example of a structured interview would be an exit interview. Learning
by being told can be done by interviewing or by task analysis. Either
way, an expert teaches the novice the processes of a task. Task analysis
is the process of determining the actual task or policy by breaking it
down and analyzing what needs to be done to complete the task. Learning
by observation can be done by presenting the expert with a sample
problem,
scenario, or
case study and then observing the process used to solve the problem.
[citation needed]
Some other techniques for capturing tacit knowledge are:
[citation needed][original research?]
All of these approaches should be recorded in order to transfer the tacit knowledge into reusable explicit knowledge.
Professor
Ikujiro Nonaka has proposed the
SECI
(Socialization, Externalization, Combination, Internalization) model,
one of the most widely cited theories in knowledge management, to
present the spiraling knowledge processes of interaction between
explicit knowledge and tacit knowledge (
Nonaka & Takeuchi 1995).
See also
References
- ^ Collins, H.M. "Tacit Knowledge, Trust and the Q of Sapphire" Social Studies of Science' p. 71-85 31(1) 2001.
- ^ Polanyi, Michael (1966), The Tacit Dimension, University of Chicago Press: Chicago, 4.
- ^ Goffin,
K. & Koners, U. (2011). Tacit Knowledge, Lessons Learnt, and New
Product Development. J PROD INNOV MANAG, 28, 300-318.
- ^ Schmidt,
F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (1993). Tacit knowledge, practical
intelligence, general mental ability, and job knowledge. Current
Directions in Psychological Science, 2, 8-9.
- ^ Goffin,
K. & Koners, U. (2011). Tacit Knowledge, Lessons Learnt, and New
Product Development. J PROD INNOV MANAG, 28, 300-318.
- ^ Engel,
P. J. H. (2008). Tacit knowledge and Visual Expertise in Medical
Diagnostic Reasoning: Implications for medical education. Medical
Teacher, 30, e184-e188. DOI: 10.1080/01421590802144260.
- ^ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle_and_motorcycle_dynamics
- ^ Lam,
A. (2000). Tacit Knowledge, Organizational Learning and Societal
Institutions: An Integrated Framework. Organization Studies 21(3),
487-513.
- ^ Schmidt,
F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (1993). Tacit knowledge, practical
intelligence, general mental ability, and job knowledge. Current
Directions in Psychological Science, 2, 8-9.
- ^ Lam,
A. (2000). Tacit Knowledge, Organizational Learning and Societal
Institutions: An Integrated Framework. Organization Studies 21(3),
487-51.
- ^ Angioni, G., Fare, dire, sentire: l'identico e il diverso nelle culture, Il Maestrale, 2011, 26-99
- ^ Schmidt,
F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (1993). Tacit knowledge, practical
intelligence, general mental ability, and job knowledge. Current
Directions in Psychological Science, 2, 8-9.
- ^ Lam,
A. (2000). Tacit Knowledge, Organizational Learning and Societal
Institutions: An Integrated Framework. Organization Studies 21(3),
487-513.
- ^ Collins, H.M. "Tacit Knowledge, Trust and the Q of Sapphire" Social Studies of Science' p. 71-85 31(1) 2001
- ^ J.E. Gordon, "The new science of strong materials", Penguin books.
- ^ Nonaka,
Ikujiro; Takeuchi, Hirotaka (1995), The knowledge creating company: how
Japanese companies create the dynamics of innovation, New York: Oxford
University Press, pp. 284, ISBN 978-0-19-509269-1.
- ^ Parsaye, Kamran; Chignell, Mark (1988), Expert systems for experts, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, p. 365, ISBN 978-0-471-60175-3
Further reading
- Angioni G., Doing, Thinkink, Saying, in Sanga & Ortalli (eds.) , Nature Knowledge, Berghahm Books, New York-Oxford 2004, 249-261.
- Angioni, G., Fare, dire, sentire: l'identico e il diverso nelle culture, Il Maestrale, 2011, 26-99
- Bao, Y.; Zhao, S. (2004), "MICRO Contracting for Tacit Knowledge - A
Study of Contractual Arrangements in International Technology
Transfer", in Problems and Perspectives of Management, 2, 279- 303.
- Brohm, R. Bringing Polanyi onto the theatre stage: a study on Polanyi applied to Knowledge Management, in: Proceedings of the ISMICK Conference, Erasmus University, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 1999, pp. 57–69.
- Brohm, R. (2005), Polycentric Order in Organizations, Erasmus University Rotterdam: Published dissertation ERIM, hdl:1765/6911
- Collins, H.M. "Tacit Knowledge, Trust and the Q of Sapphire" Social Studies of Science' p. 71-85 31(1) 2001
- Dalkir, Kimiz (2005) "Knowledge Management in Theory and Practice" pp. 82–90
- Gladwell, Malcolm 2005. Blink: the power of thinking without thinking. Little, Brown: New York.
- Gourlay, Stephen, "An Activity Centered Framework for Knowledge Management". In Claire Regina McInerney, Ronald E. Day (2007). Rethinking knowledge management. Springer. ISBN 3-540-71010-8.
- Nonaka, Ikujiro; Takeuchi, Hirotaka (1995), The knowledge creating company: how Japanese companies create the dynamics of innovation, New York: Oxford University Press, p. 284, ISBN 978-0-19-509269-1
- Patriotta, G. (2004). Studying organizational knowledge. Knowledge Management Research and Practice, 2(1).
- Ploszajski, P.; Saquet, A.; Segalla, M. Le savoir tacite dans un
contexte culturel (z: ), Les Echos, Le Quotidien de L’Economie, 18
Novembre 2004, Paris 2004
- Polanyi, Michael.
"The Tacit Dimension". First published Doubleday & Co, 1966.
Reprinted Peter Smith, Gloucester, Mass, 1983. Chapter 1: "Tacit
Knowing".
- Reber, Arthur S. 1993. Implicit learning and tacit knowledge: an essay on the corgnitive unconscious. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510658-X
- Sanders, A. F. (1988). Michael Polanyi's post critical epistemology, a reconstruction of some aspects of 'tacit knowing'. Amsterdam: Rodopi.
- Smith, M. K. (2003) 'Michael Polanyi and tacit knowledge', the
encyclopedia of informal education, www.infed.org/thinkers/polanyi.htm.©
2003 Mark K. Smith
- Tsoukas, H. (2003) ‘Do we really understand tacit knowledge?’ in The Blackwell handbook of organizational learning and knowledge management. Easterby-Smith and Lyles (eds), 411-427. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
- Erik Cambria and Amir Hussain: Sentic Computing: Techniques, Tools, and Applications. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer, ISBN: 978-94-007-5069-2, 2012
- Wenger E. Communities of practice: learning, meaning and identity, Cambridge University Press, New York 1998.
- Wilson, Timothy D. 2002. Strangers to ourselves: discovering the adaptive unconscious. Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA. 0-674-01382-4
External links
