A binaural beat is an
auditory illusion perceived when two different pure-tone
sine waves, both with
frequencies lower than 1500 Hz, with less than a 40 Hz difference between them, are presented to a
listener dichotically, that is one through each
ear.
[1] For example, if a 530 Hz pure
tone is presented to a subject's right ear, while a 520 Hz pure tone is presented to the subject's left ear, the listener will
perceive the
auditory illusion
of a third tone, in addition to the two pure-tones presented to each
ear. The third sound is called a binaural beat, and in this example
would have a
perceived pitch correlating to a frequency of 10 Hz, that being the difference between the 530 Hz and 520 Hz pure tones presented to each ear.
[2]
History
The term 'binaural' literally signifies 'to hear with two ears', and
was introduced in 1859 to signify the practice of listening to the same
sound through both ears, or to two discrete sounds, one through each
ear. It was not until 1916 that
Carl Stumpf (1848-1936), a German
philosopher and
psychologist, distinguished between dichotic listening, which refers to the stimulation of each ear with a different
stimulus, and diotic listening, the simultaneous stimulation of both ears with the same stimulus.
[3][4]
Later, it would be become apparent that binaural hearing, whether dichotic or diotic, is the means by which the
geolocation and direction of a
sound is determined.
[5][6]
Scientific consideration of binaural hearing began before the phenomenon was so named, with the ideas articulated in 1792 by
William Charles Wells (1757–1817), a Scottish-American
printer, and
physician at
Saint Thomas' Hospital, London. Wells sought to theoretically examine and explain aspects of human
hearing,
including the way in which listening with two ears rather than one
might affect the perception of sound, which proceeded from his research
into
binocular vision.
[7][8]
Subsequently, between 1796 and 1802,
Giovanni Battista Venturi (1746 - 1822), an Italian
physicist,
savant, man of letters,
diplomat, and
historian of
science, conducted and described a series of
experiments intended to elucidate the nature of binaural
hearing.
[9][10][11][12] It was in an appendix to a monograph on color that
Venturi described experiments on
auditory localization
using one or two ears, concluding that "the inequality of the two
impressions, which are perceived at the same time by both ears,
determines the correct direction of the sound."
[13][14]
However, none of
Venturi's
contemporaries at the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the
nineteenth centuries considered his original work worthy of citation or
attention, with the exception of
Ernst Florens Friedrich Chladni (1756–1827), a German
physicist and
musician, who is widely cited as the father of acoustics. After investigating the behavior of
vibrating strings and plates, and examining the way in which
sound appeared to be
perceived,
Chladni acknowledged
Venturi's work, agreeing with him that the ability to determine the
location, and direction of sound depended upon detected differences in a sound between both ears, including
amplitude and
frequency, subsequently denoted by the term 'interaural differences'.
[15][16][17]
Other significant historic investigations into binaural hearing include those of
Charles Wheatstone (1802–1875), an English scientist, whose many inventions included the
concertina and the
stereoscope,
Ernst Heinrich Weber (1795–1878), a German physician cited as one of the founders of
experimental psychology; and
August Seebeck (1805–1849), a scientist at the
Technische Universität, Dresden, remembered for his work on
sound and
hearing. Like
Wells,
these researchers attempted to compare and contrast what would become
known as binaural hearing with the principles of binocular integration
generally, and binocular color mixing specifically. They found that
binocular vision did not follow the laws of combination of colors from different bands of the
spectrum. Rather, it was found that when presenting a different color to each eye, they did not combine, but often competed for
perceptual attention.
[18][19][20][21]
Meanwhile, of
Wheatstone conducted experiments in which he presented a different
tuning fork to each ear, stating:
It is well known, that when two consonant sounds are heard together, a
third sound results from the coincidences of their vibrations; and that
this third sound, which is called the grave harmonic, is always equal
to unity, when the two primitive sounds are represented by the lowest
integral numbers. This being premised, select two tuning-forks the
sounds of which differ by any consonant interval excepting the octave;
place the broad sides of their branches, while in vibration, close to
one ear, in such a manner that they shall nearly touch at the acoustic
axis; the resulting grave harmonic will then be strongly audible,
combined with the two other sounds; place afterwards one fork to each
ear, and the consonance will be heard much richer in volume, but no
audible indications whatever of the third sound will be perceived.[22]
Wheatstone's reference to the perceptual fusion of harmonically related tones were directly related to the principles examined by
Wells.
However, both their observations were ignored and remained uncited by
contemporaraneous and subsequent German researchers of the following
decades.
Venturi's experiments were repeated and confirmed by
Lord Rayleigh (1842–1919), almost seventy-five years later.
[23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30]
Other investigators of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, who were contemporaries of
Lord Rayleigh, also investigated the significance of binaural hearing. These included
Louis Trenchard More (1870-1944), a
professor of
physics, and
Harry Shipley Fry (1878-1949), a lecturer in
chemistry, both at the
University of Cincinnati;
H. A. Wilson and
Charles Samuel Myers, both professors of science at
King's College London; and
Alfred M. Mayer
(1836 - 1897), an American physicist, each of whom conducted
experimental investigations with intent to discover the means by which
human subjects ascertain the location, origin, and direction of sound,
believing this to be in some way dependent on dichotic hearing, that is
listening to sound through both ears.
[31][32][33][34]
Understanding of how the difference in
sound signal between two ears contributes to
auditory processing in such a way as to enable the
location and direction of sound to be determined was considerably advanced after the invention of the
differential stethophone by
Somerville Scott Alison in 1859, who coined the term 'binaural'.
Alison based his
stethophone on the
stethoscope, a previous invention of
René Théophile Hyacinthe Laennec (1781–1826).
[35]
Unlike the
stethoscope, which had only a single sound-source piece placed upon the chest,
Alison's stethophone had two separate ones, allowing the user to hear and compare sounds derived from two discreet locations. This allowed a
physician
to identify the source of a sound through the process of binaural
hearing. Subsequently, Alison referred to his invention as a 'binaural
stethoscope', describing it as:
…an instrument consisting of two hearing-tubes, or trumpets, or
stethoscopes, provided with collecting-cups and ear-knobs, one for each
ear respectively. The two tubes are, for convenience, mechanically
combined, but may be said to be acoustically separate, as care is taken
that the sound, once admitted into one tube, is not communicated to the
other.[36][37]
Neurophysiology
Cortical Oscillation and Electroencephalography (EEG)
The activity of
neurons generate
electric currents; and the
synchronous action of
neural ensembles in the cerebral cortex, comprising large numbers of
neurons, produce macroscopic
oscillations, which can be monitored and graphically documented by an
electroencephalogram (EEG). The
electroencephalographic representations of those
oscillations are typically denoted by the term 'brainwaves' in common parlance.
[38][39]
Neural oscillations are rhythmic or repetitive electrochemical activity in the
brain and
central nervous system. Such
oscillations can be characterized by their
frequency,
amplitude and
phase.
Neural tissue can generate oscillatory activity driven by mechanisms within individual
neurons, as well as by interactions between them. They may also adjust
frequency to
synchronize with the
periodicity of an external
acoustic or
visual stimuli.
[40]
The technique of recording
neural electrical activity within the
brain from
electrochemical readings taken from the
scalp originated with the experiments of
Richard Caton in 1875, whose findings were developed into
electroencephalography (EEG) by
Hans Berger in the late 1920s.
Frequency bands of cortical neural ensembles
The fluctuating
frequency of
oscillations generated by the
synchronous activity of
cortical neurons, measurable with an
electroencephalogram (EEG), via
electrodes attached to the
scalp, are conveniently categorized into general bands, in order of decreasing frequency, measured in
Hertz (HZ) as follows:
[41][42]
In addition, three further
wave forms are often delineated in
electroencephalographic studies:
It was Berger who first described the
frequency bands
Delta,
Theta,
Alpha, and
Beta.
Neurophysiological origin of binaural beat perception
Binaural-beat
perception originates in the
inferior colliculus of the
midbrain and the
superior olivary complex of the
brainstem, where
auditory signals from each
ear are integrated and precipitate
electrical impulses along
neural pathways through the
reticular formation up the
midbrain to the
thalamus,
auditory cortex, and other cortical regions.
[44][45][46][47]
Neural oscillations and mental state
Following the technique of measuring such
brainwaves by
Berger, there has remained a ubiquitous consensus that
electroencephalogram (EEG) readings depict
brainwave wave form patterns that alter over time, and correlate with the aspects of the subject's mental and
emotional state,
mental status, and degree of
consciousness and
vigilance.
[48][49][50] It is therefore now established and accepted that discreet
electroencephalogram
(EEG) measurements, including frequency and amplitude of neural
oscillations, correlate with different perceptual, motor and cognitive
states.
[51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58][59][60][61]
Furthermore,
brainwaves alter in response to changes in environmental
stimuli, including
sound and
music; and while the degree and nature of alteration is partially dependent on individual
perception, such that the same stimulus may precipitate differing changes in neural oscillations and correlating
electroencephalogram
(EEG) readings in different subjects, the frequency of cortical neural
oscillations, as measured by the EEG, has also been shown to
synchronize with or entrain to that of an external
acoustic or
photic stimulus, with accompanying alterations in
cognitive and
emotional state. This process is called neuronal entrainment or
brainwave entrainment.
Entrainment
Meaning and Origin of the Term 'Entrainment'
Entrainment is a term originally derived from
complex systems theory, and denotes the way that two or more independent, autonomous
oscillators with differing rhythms or
frequencies,
when situated in a context and at a proximity where they can interact
for long enough, influence each other mutually, to a degree dependent on
coupling force, such that they adjust until both oscillate with the same frequency. Examples include the
mechanical entrainment or cyclic
synchronization
of two electric clothes dryers placed in close proximity, and the
biological entrainment evident in the synchronized illumination of
fireflies.
[62]
Entrainment is a concept first identified by the
Dutch physicist Christiaan Huygens in 1665 who discovered the phenomenon during an experiment with
pendulum clocks: He set them each in motion and found that when he returned the next day, the sway of their pendulums had all
synchronized.
[63]
Such entrainment occurs because small amounts of
energy are transferred between the two systems when they are out of
phase in such a way as to produce
negative feedback. As they assume a more stable
phase relationship, the amount of
energy gradually reduces to zero, with system of greater
frequency slowing down, and the other speeding up.
[64]
Subsequently, the term 'entrainment' has been used to describe a shared tendency of many physical and
biological systems to
synchronize their periodicity and
rhythm through interaction. This tendency has been identified as specifically pertinent to the study of
sound and
music generally, and
acoustic rhythms specifically. The most ubiquitous and familiar examples of neuromotor
entrainment to acoustic stimuli is observable in spontaneous foot or finger tapping to the rhythmic beat of a
song.
Exogenous entrainment
Exogenous
rhythmic
entrainment, which occurs outside the body, has been identified and
documented for a variety of human activities, which include the way
people adjust the
rhythm of their
speech patterns to those of the subject with whom they communicate, and the rhythmic unison of an audience clapping.
[65]
Even among groups of strangers, the rate of
breathing, locomotive and subtle expressive
motor movements, and rhythmic
speech patterns have been observed to
synchronize and entrain, in response to an
auditory stimuli, such as a piece of
music with a consistent
rhythm.
[66][67][68][69][70][71][72] Furthermore,
motor synchronization to repetitive
tactile stimuli occurs in animals, including
cats and
monkeys as well as humans, with accompanying shifts in
electroencephalogram (EEG) readings.
[73][74][75][76][77]
Endogenous entrainment
Examples of endogenous entrainment, which occurs within the body, include the
synchronizing of human
circadian sleep-wake cycles to the 24-hour cycle of light and dark.
[78] and the
synchronization of a
heartbeat to a
cardiac pacemaker.
[79]
Brainwave entrainment
Brainwaves, or
neural oscillations, share the fundamental constituents with
acoustic and
optical wave forms, including
frequency,
amplitude, and
periodicity. Consequently, Huygens' discovery precipitated inquiry into whether or not the
synchronous electrical activity of
cortical neural ensembles might not only alter in response to external
acoustic or
optical stimuli but also entrain or
synchronize their
frequency to that of a specific
stimulus.
[80][81][82][83]
Brainwave entrainment is a colloquialism for such 'neural entrainment', which is a term used to denote the way in which the aggregate
frequency of
oscillations produced by the synchronous electrical activity in ensembles of
cortical neurons can adjust to
synchronize with the
periodicity of an external
stimuli, such as a sustained
acoustic frequency perceived as
pitch, a regularly repeating pattern of intermittent sounds, perceived as
rhythm, or a regularly rhythmically intermittent flashing light.
The frequency following response and auditory driving
The hypothesized entrainment of
neural oscillations to the frequency of an
acoustic stimulus occurs by way of the
Frequency following response (FFR), also referred to as Frequency Following Potential (FFP). The use of sound with intent to influence
brainwave cortical brainwave frequency is called
auditory driving.
[84][85]
Auditory driving refers to the hypothesized ability for repetitive rhythmic
auditory stimuli to 'drive'
neural electric
activity to entrain with it. By the principles of such hypotheses, it
is proposed that, for example, a subject who hears drum rhythms at 8
beats per second, will be influenced such that an
electroencephalogram (EEG) reading will show an increase brainwave activity at 8 Hz range, in the upper
theta, lower
alpha band.
Binaural beats and neural entrainment
One of the problems inherent in any
scientific investigation conducted in order to ascertain whether
brainwaves can entrain to the
frequency of an
acoustic stimulus is that human subjects rarely hear frequencies below 20 Hz, which is exactly the range of
Delta,
Theta,
Alpha, and low to mid
Beta brainwaves.
[86][87] Among the methods by which some investigations have sought to overcome this problem is to measure
electroencephalogram
(EEG) readings of a subject while he or she listens to binaural beats.
Subsequent to such investigations, there is significant evidence to show
that such listening precipitates
auditory driving by which ensembles of cortical neurons entrain their
frequencies to that of the binaural beat, with associated changes in self-reported subjective experience of
emotional and
cognitive state.
[88][89][90][91][92][93][94][95][96][97][98][99][100][101][102][103]
Binaural beats and music
Many of the aforementioned reports are based on the use of
auditory stimuli that combines binaural beats with other sounds, including
music and
verbal guidance. This consequently precludes the attribution of any influence on or positive outcome for the listener specifically to the
perception of the binaural beats.
[104]
Very few studies have sought to isolate the effect of binaural beats on
listeners. However, initial findings in one experiment suggest that
listening to binaural beats may exert an influence on both Low Frequency
and High
Frequency components of
heart rate variability, and may increase subjective
feelings of
relaxation.
[105]
Notwithstanding this problem, a review of research findings suggest that listening to
music and
sound can modulate
autonomic arousal through
entrainment of
neural oscillations. Furthermore,
music generally, and
rhythmic patterns, such as those produced by
percussive performance including
drumming specifically, have been shown to influence
arousal ergotropically and trophotropically, increasing and decreasing
arousal respectively.
[106] Such
auditory stimulation has been demonstrated to improve
immune function, facilitate
relaxation, improve
mood, and contribute to the alleviation of
stress.
[107][108][109][110][111][112][113][114]
Meanwhile, the therapeutic benefits of listening to
sound and
music, whether or not the outcome can be attributed to
neural entrainment, is a well-established principle upon which the practice of receptive
music therapy is founded. The term 'receptive music therapy' denotes a process by which patients or participants listen to
music
with specific intent to therapeutically benefit; and is a term used by
therapists to distinguish it from 'active music therapy' by which
patients or participants engage in producing
vocal or
instrumental music.
[115]
Receptive music therapy is an effective adjunctive
intervention suitable for treating a range of
physical and
mental conditions.
[116]
Meanwhile, the evident changes in
neural oscillations precipitated by listening to music, which are demonstrable through
electroencephalogram (EEG) measurements,
[117][118][119][120][121][122] have contributed to the development of
neurologic music therapy,
which uses music and song as an active and receptive intervention, to
contribute to the treatment and management of disorders characterized by
impairment to parts of the
brain and
central nervous system, including
stroke,
traumatic brain injury,
Parkinson's disease,
Huntington's disease,
cerebral palsy,
Alzheimer's disease, and
autism.
[123][124][125]
Non ordinary states of consciousness
Historically,
music generally, and
percussive performance specifically was and remains integral to
ritual ceremony and
spiritual practice among
early and indigenous peoples and their descendants, where it is often used to induce the
non ordinary state of consciousness (NOSC) believed by participants to be a requisite for communication with
spiritual energies and entities.
[126][127]
While there is no scientific evidence for existence of such energy or
entities, and thereby nor the human capacity to communicate with them,
the findings of some contemporary research suggests that listening to
rhythmic sounds, especially
percussion, can induce the subjective experience of a
non ordinary states of consciousness (NOSC), with correlating
electroencephalogram (EEG) profiles comparable to those associated with some forms of
meditation, while also increasing the susceptibility to
hypnosis.
[128][129][130][131] Specifically, some investigations show that the
electroencephalogram
(EEG) readings attained while a subject is meditating are comparable to
those taken while he or she is listening to binaural beats,
characterized by increased activity in the
Alpha and
Theta bands.
[132][133][134][135][136]
See also
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Further reading
- Thaut, M. H., Rhythm, Music, and the Brain: Scientific Foundations
and Clinical Applications (Studies on New Music Research). New York, NY:
Routledge, 2005.
- Berger, J. and Turow, G. (Eds.), Music, Science, and the Rhythmic
Brain : Cultural and Clinical Implications. New York, NY: Routledge,
2011.
External links
