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NASA Television | NASA

Unleashing the Power of Earth Observations: Barbara Ryan

Unleashing the Power of Earth Observations

 Jan 21, 2014 • In December 2013, the Secretariat Director of the Group on Earth Observations gave a TEDx talk in Barcelona, Spain making the case that all Earth-oberservation data collected from governments and institutions should be open and available to everyone. She illustrates how this could reduce hunger and improve the quality of life of all Earth’s inhabitants. Ryan emphasizes that Earth observation data show Earth without political boundaries, as an entire system. See: The Landsat Program

Propulsion Thruster

Gridded Ion Thruster

 ***

See Also:

• Space Travel and Propulsion Methods  
• Spacecraft propulsion  
• NEXT Provides Lasting Propulsion and High Speeds for Deep Space Missions

Russian Space Walkers

Two Russian cosmonauts in Orlan spacesuits wrapped up a 8-hour, 7-minute spacewalk to attempt the installation of photographic equipment on the exterior of the International Space Station at 4:07 p.m. EST Friday. See: ISS Russian Space walkers Run Into Snag With Camera Installation

Iris-Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph

This graphic shows the IRIS observatory with the solar arrays removed. The orange section to the left is the spacecraft bus which includes the spacecraft support structure, the command and data handling system, power distribution system, reaction wheels, X- and S-Band communications systems, Li-Ion battery, magnetic torque rods, and electronics for the sun sensors. The section to the right of the spacecraft includes the instrument optics package and electronics, several components of the attitude control system, and the solar arrays. The instrument includes a 20cm telescope optimized for solar observations which feeds a 5 channel imaging spectrograph. The green section is the telescope assembly, the light blue section is the spectrograph, and the dark blue box is the separate instrument electronics box. Credit: LMSAL, LM ATC

NASA is getting ready to launch a new mission, a mission to observe a largely unexplored region of the solar atmosphere that powers its dynamic million-degree outer atmosphere and drives the solar wind. In late June 2013, the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph, or IRIS, will launch from Vandenberg Air Force Base, Calif. IRIS will advance our understanding of the interface region, a region in the lower atmosphere of the sun where most of the sun's ultraviolet emissions are generated. Such emissions impact the near-Earth space environment and Earth's climate. See:IRIS: Studying the Energy Flow that Powers the Solar Atmosphere

This image shows the Heliophysics System Observatory (HSO). The HSO utilizes the entire fleet of solar, heliospheric, geospace, and planetary spacecraft as a distributed observatory to discover the larger scale and/or coupled processes at work throughout the complex system that makes up our space environment. The HSO consist of 18 operating missions: Voyager, Geotail, Wind, SOHO, ACE, Cluster, TIMED, RHESSI, TWINS, Hinode, STEREO, THEMIS, AIM, CINDI, IBEX, SDO, ARTEMIS, Van Allen Probes Credit: NASA

Nightlights from Coast of Eastern US

ISS030-E-078095 (6 Feb. 2012) --- One of the Expedition 30 crew members aboard the International Space Station took this nighttime photograph of much of the eastern (Atlantic) coast of the United States. Large metropolitan areas and other easily recognizable sites from the Virginia/Maryland/Washington, D.C. area spanning almost to Rhode Island are visible in the scene. Boston is just out of frame at right. Long Island and the Greater Metropolitan area of New York City are visible in the lower right quadrant. Large cities in Pennsylvania (Philadelphia and Pittsburgh) are near center. Parts of two Russian vehicles parked at the orbital outpost are seen in left foreground.

Robotic Development for Space

 WASHINGTON -- NASA has demonstrated robotic fluid transfer in space, an objective that will help inform the development of robotic technology to refuel satellites. The first-of-its-kind demonstration was performed during the Robotic Refueling Mission (RRM) aboard the International Space Station.

"This achievement is a major step forward in servicing satellites," said Frank Cepollina, associate director of the Satellite Servicing Capabilities Office at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md. "RRM gives NASA and the emerging commercial satellite servicing industry the confidence to robotically refuel, repair and maintain satellites in both near and distant orbits -- well beyond the reach of where humans can go today."

A joint effort with the Canadian Space Agency, RRM uses the International Space Station as test bed for the research and development of robotic satellite-servicing capabilities. During six days of activity last month, controllers on the ground at NASA's Johnson Space Center in Houston used the space station's remotely operated Dextre, a robotic space handyman, to cut wires, remove and stow caps and perform tasks necessary to refuel satellites not designed to be refueled.

The cutting-edge technologies that RRM is demonstrating could extend the lives of many of the hundreds of satellites currently in geosynchronous Earth orbit. These are satellites that deliver essential services such as weather reports, cell phone communications, television broadcasts, government communications and air traffic management.

RRM tasks scheduled to be performed later this year include thermal blanket cutting and fastener and electronic termination cap removals. NASA anticipates RRM technologies may help boost the commercial satellite-servicing industry in the future. Such servicing capabilities could greatly expand options for government and commercial fleet operators. See:NASA'S Refueling Demonstration Proves Viability Of Satellite-Servicing Technologies

The first movement of Robonaut 2 on the International Space Station during one of the initial checkout tests with Astronaut Mike Fossum

In February 2010, Robonaut 2 (R2) was revealed to the public. R2 is capable of speeds more than four times faster than R1, is more compact, more dexterous, and includes a deeper and wider range of sensing.^[11] It can move its arms up to 2 m/s, has a 40 lb payload capacity and its hands have a grasping force of roughly 5 lbs. per finger. There are over 350 sensors and 38 PowerPC processors in the robot.^[12]
Station crew members will be able to operate R2, as will controllers on the ground; both will do so using telepresence. One of the improvements over the previous Robonaut generation is that R2 doesn’t need constant supervision. In anticipation of a future destination in which distance and time delays would make continuous management problematic, R2 was designed to be set to tasks and then carry them through autonomously with periodic status checks.^[10] While not all human range of motion and sensitivity has been duplicated, the robot's hand has 12 degrees of freedom as well as 2 degrees of freedom in wrist.^[13][14] The R2 model also uses touch sensors at the tips of its fingers.^[15]

R2 was designed as a prototype to be used on Earth but mission managers were impressed by R2 and chose to send it to the ISS.^[10] Various upgrades were made to qualify it for use inside the station. The outer skin materials were exchanged to meet the station’s flammability requirements, shielding was added to reduce electromagnetic interference, processors were upgraded to increase the robot’s radiation tolerance, the original fans were replaced with quieter ones to accommodate the station’s noise requirements, and the power system was rewired to run on the station’s direct current system rather than the alternating current used on the ground.^[10]

Robonaut 2 was launched on STS-133 on February 24, 2011, and delivered to the ISS. On August 22, R2 was powered up for the first time while in low earth orbit.^[16] This was called a "power soak" which is a power system test only with no movement. On October 13, R2 moves for the first time while in space.^[17] The conditions aboard the space station provide a proving ground for robots to work shoulder to shoulder with people in microgravity. Once this has been demonstrated inside the station, software upgrades and lower bodies may be added, allowing R2 to move around the interior of the station and perform maintenance tasks, such as vacuuming or cleaning filters.^[10] Climbing legs and a battery backpack are planned to be delivered to the ISS in late 2013.^[18]

Further upgrades could be added to allow R2 to work outside in the vacuum of space, where R2 could help space walkers perform repairs, make additions to the station or conduct scientific experiments. There are no plans to return the launched R2 back to earth.^[10]

NASA's experience with R2 on the station will help them understand its capabilities for possible deep space missions.

See Also:

• Embodied Cognition and iCub

Powerful Nor'easter Coming Together

Credit: NASA

A massive winter storm is coming together as two low pressure systems are merging over the U.S. East Coast. A satellite image from NOAA's GOES-13 satellite on Feb. 8 shows a western frontal system approaching the coastal low pressure area.

The satellite image, captured at 9:01 a.m. EST, shows clouds associated with the western frontal system stretching from Canada through the Ohio and Tennessee valleys, into the Gulf of Mexico. The comma-shaped low pressure system located over the Atlantic, east of Virginia, is forecast to merge with the front and create a powerful nor'easter. The National Weather Service expects the merged storm to move northeast and drop between two to three feet of snow in parts of New England. See: Nasa-Image of the Day

Visible Earth

http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/ (Click on Image for Larger Viewing)

See Also:

• Blue Marble Navigator
• Spaceship Earth: Who Is In Control?
•  http://www.overviewinstitute.org/
•  http://www.overviewthemovie.com/

ScienceCasts: Dark Lightning

 

Click on Image for Larger Viewing

See Also:

• NASA's Fermi Catches Thunderstorms Hurling Antimatter into Space

Merry Christmas

Also See Last Years Favorites: Google Gravity, Google Sphere, Askew

Note: When on Google gravity page and your search box is on the bottom.....type in eskesthai.com

Source: Hubblesite.org Credit: NASA, ESA, and the Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA)

December 18, 2012: 'Tis the season for holiday decorating and tree-trimming. Not to be left out, astronomers using NASA's Hubble Space Telescope have photographed a festive-looking nearby planetary nebula called NGC 5189. The intricate structure of this bright gaseous nebula resembles a glass-blown holiday ornament with a glowing ribbon entwined. See: A Cosmic Holiday Ornament, Hubble-Style

Binaural beats by Wiki(updated April 2016)

A binaural beat is an auditory illusion perceived when two different pure-tone sine waves, both with frequencies lower than 1500 Hz, with less than a 40 Hz difference between them, are presented to a listener dichotically, that is one through each ear.^[1] For example, if a 530 Hz pure tone is presented to a subject's right ear, while a 520 Hz pure tone is presented to the subject's left ear, the listener will perceive the auditory illusion of a third tone, in addition to the two pure-tones presented to each ear. The third sound is called a binaural beat, and in this example would have a perceived pitch correlating to a frequency of 10 Hz, that being the difference between the 530 Hz and 520 Hz pure tones presented to each ear.^[2]

 

Contents

• 1 History
• 2 Neurophysiology
  • 2.1 Cortical Oscillation and Electroencephalography (EEG)
  • 2.2 Frequency bands of cortical neural ensembles
  • 2.3 Neurophysiological origin of binaural beat perception
• 3 Neural oscillations and mental state
• 4 Entrainment
  • 4.1 Meaning and Origin of the Term 'Entrainment'
  • 4.2 Exogenous entrainment
  • 4.3 Endogenous entrainment
  • 4.4 Brainwave entrainment
  • 4.5 The frequency following response and auditory driving
  • 4.6 Binaural beats and neural entrainment
• 5 Binaural beats and music
• 6 Non ordinary states of consciousness
• 7 See also
• 8 References
• 9 Further reading
• 10 External links

 

History

The term 'binaural' literally signifies 'to hear with two ears', and was introduced in 1859 to signify the practice of listening to the same sound through both ears, or to two discrete sounds, one through each ear. It was not until 1916 that Carl Stumpf (1848-1936), a German philosopher and psychologist, distinguished between dichotic listening, which refers to the stimulation of each ear with a different stimulus, and diotic listening, the simultaneous stimulation of both ears with the same stimulus.^[3][4]

Later, it would be become apparent that binaural hearing, whether dichotic or diotic, is the means by which the geolocation and direction of a sound is determined.^[5][6]

Scientific consideration of binaural hearing began before the phenomenon was so named, with the ideas articulated in 1792 by William Charles Wells (1757–1817), a Scottish-American printer, and physician at Saint Thomas' Hospital, London. Wells sought to theoretically examine and explain aspects of human hearing, including the way in which listening with two ears rather than one might affect the perception of sound, which proceeded from his research into binocular vision.^[7][8]

Subsequently, between 1796 and 1802, Giovanni Battista Venturi (1746 - 1822), an Italian physicist, savant, man of letters, diplomat, and historian of science, conducted and described a series of experiments intended to elucidate the nature of binaural hearing.^{[9][10][11][12]} It was in an appendix to a monograph on color that Venturi described experiments on auditory localization using one or two ears, concluding that "the inequality of the two impressions, which are perceived at the same time by both ears, determines the correct direction of the sound."^[13][14]

However, none of Venturi's contemporaries at the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth centuries considered his original work worthy of citation or attention, with the exception of Ernst Florens Friedrich Chladni (1756–1827), a German physicist and musician, who is widely cited as the father of acoustics. After investigating the behavior of vibrating strings and plates, and examining the way in which sound appeared to be perceived, Chladni acknowledged Venturi's work, agreeing with him that the ability to determine the location, and direction of sound depended upon detected differences in a sound between both ears, including amplitude and frequency, subsequently denoted by the term 'interaural differences'.^[15][16][17]

Other significant historic investigations into binaural hearing include those of Charles Wheatstone (1802–1875), an English scientist, whose many inventions included the concertina and the stereoscope, Ernst Heinrich Weber (1795–1878), a German physician cited as one of the founders of experimental psychology; and August Seebeck (1805–1849), a scientist at the Technische Universität, Dresden, remembered for his work on sound and hearing. Like Wells, these researchers attempted to compare and contrast what would become known as binaural hearing with the principles of binocular integration generally, and binocular color mixing specifically. They found that binocular vision did not follow the laws of combination of colors from different bands of the spectrum. Rather, it was found that when presenting a different color to each eye, they did not combine, but often competed for perceptual attention.^{[18][19][20][21]}

Meanwhile, of Wheatstone conducted experiments in which he presented a different tuning fork to each ear, stating:

It is well known, that when two consonant sounds are heard together, a third sound results from the coincidences of their vibrations; and that this third sound, which is called the grave harmonic, is always equal to unity, when the two primitive sounds are represented by the lowest integral numbers. This being premised, select two tuning-forks the sounds of which differ by any consonant interval excepting the octave; place the broad sides of their branches, while in vibration, close to one ear, in such a manner that they shall nearly touch at the acoustic axis; the resulting grave harmonic will then be strongly audible, combined with the two other sounds; place afterwards one fork to each ear, and the consonance will be heard much richer in volume, but no audible indications whatever of the third sound will be perceived.^[22]

Wheatstone's reference to the perceptual fusion of harmonically related tones were directly related to the principles examined by Wells. However, both their observations were ignored and remained uncited by contemporaraneous and subsequent German researchers of the following decades.
Venturi's experiments were repeated and confirmed by Lord Rayleigh (1842–1919), almost seventy-five years later.^{[23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30]}

Other investigators of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, who were contemporaries of Lord Rayleigh, also investigated the significance of binaural hearing. These included Louis Trenchard More (1870-1944), a professor of physics, and Harry Shipley Fry (1878-1949), a lecturer in chemistry, both at the University of Cincinnati; H. A. Wilson and Charles Samuel Myers, both professors of science at King's College London; and Alfred M. Mayer (1836 - 1897), an American physicist, each of whom conducted experimental investigations with intent to discover the means by which human subjects ascertain the location, origin, and direction of sound, believing this to be in some way dependent on dichotic hearing, that is listening to sound through both ears.^{[31][32][33][34]}

Understanding of how the difference in sound signal between two ears contributes to auditory processing in such a way as to enable the location and direction of sound to be determined was considerably advanced after the invention of the differential stethophone by Somerville Scott Alison in 1859, who coined the term 'binaural'. Alison based his stethophone on the stethoscope, a previous invention of René Théophile Hyacinthe Laennec (1781–1826).^[35]

Unlike the stethoscope, which had only a single sound-source piece placed upon the chest, Alison's stethophone had two separate ones, allowing the user to hear and compare sounds derived from two discreet locations. This allowed a physician to identify the source of a sound through the process of binaural hearing. Subsequently, Alison referred to his invention as a 'binaural stethoscope', describing it as:

…an instrument consisting of two hearing-tubes, or trumpets, or stethoscopes, provided with collecting-cups and ear-knobs, one for each ear respectively. The two tubes are, for convenience, mechanically combined, but may be said to be acoustically separate, as care is taken that the sound, once admitted into one tube, is not communicated to the other.^[36][37]

 

Neurophysiology

 

Cortical Oscillation and Electroencephalography (EEG)

The activity of neurons generate electric currents; and the synchronous action of neural ensembles in the cerebral cortex, comprising large numbers of neurons, produce macroscopic oscillations, which can be monitored and graphically documented by an electroencephalogram (EEG). The electroencephalographic representations of those oscillations are typically denoted by the term 'brainwaves' in common parlance.^[38][39]

Neural oscillations are rhythmic or repetitive electrochemical activity in the brain and central nervous system. Such oscillations can be characterized by their frequency, amplitude and phase. Neural tissue can generate oscillatory activity driven by mechanisms within individual neurons, as well as by interactions between them. They may also adjust frequency to synchronize with the periodicity of an external acoustic or visual stimuli.^[40]

The technique of recording neural electrical activity within the brain from electrochemical readings taken from the scalp originated with the experiments of Richard Caton in 1875, whose findings were developed into electroencephalography (EEG) by Hans Berger in the late 1920s.

 

Frequency bands of cortical neural ensembles

The fluctuating frequency of oscillations generated by the synchronous activity of cortical neurons, measurable with an electroencephalogram (EEG), via electrodes attached to the scalp, are conveniently categorized into general bands, in order of decreasing frequency, measured in Hertz (HZ) as follows:^[41][42]

• Gamma, 30 to 50 Hz
• Beta, 14 to 30 Hz
• Alpha, 8 to 14 Hz
• Theta, 4 to 8 Hz
• Delta, 0.1 to 4 Hz

In addition, three further wave forms are often delineated in electroencephalographic studies:

• Mu, 8 to 12 Hz
• Sigma (sleep spindle), 12 to 14 Hz
• SMR (Sensory motor rhythm), 12.5 to 15.5 Hz^[43]

It was Berger who first described the frequency bands Delta, Theta, Alpha, and Beta.

 

Neurophysiological origin of binaural beat perception

Binaural-beat perception originates in the inferior colliculus of the midbrain and the superior olivary complex of the brainstem, where auditory signals from each ear are integrated and precipitate electrical impulses along neural pathways through the reticular formation up the midbrain to the thalamus, auditory cortex, and other cortical regions.^{[44][45][46][47]}

 

Neural oscillations and mental state

Following the technique of measuring such brainwaves by Berger, there has remained a ubiquitous consensus that electroencephalogram (EEG) readings depict brainwave wave form patterns that alter over time, and correlate with the aspects of the subject's mental and emotional state, mental status, and degree of consciousness and vigilance.^[48][49][50] It is therefore now established and accepted that discreet electroencephalogram (EEG) measurements, including frequency and amplitude of neural oscillations, correlate with different perceptual, motor and cognitive states.^{[51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58][59][60][61]}

Furthermore, brainwaves alter in response to changes in environmental stimuli, including sound and music; and while the degree and nature of alteration is partially dependent on individual perception, such that the same stimulus may precipitate differing changes in neural oscillations and correlating electroencephalogram (EEG) readings in different subjects, the frequency of cortical neural oscillations, as measured by the EEG, has also been shown to synchronize with or entrain to that of an external acoustic or photic stimulus, with accompanying alterations in cognitive and emotional state. This process is called neuronal entrainment or brainwave entrainment.

 

Entrainment

 

Meaning and Origin of the Term 'Entrainment'

Entrainment is a term originally derived from complex systems theory, and denotes the way that two or more independent, autonomous oscillators with differing rhythms or frequencies, when situated in a context and at a proximity where they can interact for long enough, influence each other mutually, to a degree dependent on coupling force, such that they adjust until both oscillate with the same frequency. Examples include the mechanical entrainment or cyclic synchronization of two electric clothes dryers placed in close proximity, and the biological entrainment evident in the synchronized illumination of fireflies.^[62]

Entrainment is a concept first identified by the Dutch physicist Christiaan Huygens in 1665 who discovered the phenomenon during an experiment with pendulum clocks: He set them each in motion and found that when he returned the next day, the sway of their pendulums had all synchronized.^[63]

Such entrainment occurs because small amounts of energy are transferred between the two systems when they are out of phase in such a way as to produce negative feedback. As they assume a more stable phase relationship, the amount of energy gradually reduces to zero, with system of greater frequency slowing down, and the other speeding up.^[64]

Subsequently, the term 'entrainment' has been used to describe a shared tendency of many physical and biological systems to synchronize their periodicity and rhythm through interaction. This tendency has been identified as specifically pertinent to the study of sound and music generally, and acoustic rhythms specifically. The most ubiquitous and familiar examples of neuromotor entrainment to acoustic stimuli is observable in spontaneous foot or finger tapping to the rhythmic beat of a song.

 

Exogenous entrainment

Exogenous rhythmic entrainment, which occurs outside the body, has been identified and documented for a variety of human activities, which include the way people adjust the rhythm of their speech patterns to those of the subject with whom they communicate, and the rhythmic unison of an audience clapping.^[65]

Even among groups of strangers, the rate of breathing, locomotive and subtle expressive motor movements, and rhythmic speech patterns have been observed to synchronize and entrain, in response to an auditory stimuli, such as a piece of music with a consistent rhythm.^{[66][67][68][69][70][71][72]} Furthermore, motor synchronization to repetitive tactile stimuli occurs in animals, including cats and monkeys as well as humans, with accompanying shifts in electroencephalogram (EEG) readings.^{[73][74][75][76][77]}

 

Endogenous entrainment

Examples of endogenous entrainment, which occurs within the body, include the synchronizing of human circadian sleep-wake cycles to the 24-hour cycle of light and dark.^[78] and the synchronization of a heartbeat to a cardiac pacemaker.^[79]

 

Brainwave entrainment

Main article: Brainwave entrainment

Brainwaves, or neural oscillations, share the fundamental constituents with acoustic and optical wave forms, including frequency, amplitude, and periodicity. Consequently, Huygens' discovery precipitated inquiry into whether or not the synchronous electrical activity of cortical neural ensembles might not only alter in response to external acoustic or optical stimuli but also entrain or synchronize their frequency to that of a specific stimulus.^{[80][81][82][83]}

Brainwave entrainment is a colloquialism for such 'neural entrainment', which is a term used to denote the way in which the aggregate frequency of oscillations produced by the synchronous electrical activity in ensembles of cortical neurons can adjust to synchronize with the periodicity of an external stimuli, such as a sustained acoustic frequency perceived as pitch, a regularly repeating pattern of intermittent sounds, perceived as rhythm, or a regularly rhythmically intermittent flashing light.

 

The frequency following response and auditory driving

Main article: Frequency following response

The hypothesized entrainment of neural oscillations to the frequency of an acoustic stimulus occurs by way of the Frequency following response (FFR), also referred to as Frequency Following Potential (FFP). The use of sound with intent to influence brainwave cortical brainwave frequency is called auditory driving.^[84][85]
Auditory driving refers to the hypothesized ability for repetitive rhythmic auditory stimuli to 'drive' neural electric activity to entrain with it. By the principles of such hypotheses, it is proposed that, for example, a subject who hears drum rhythms at 8 beats per second, will be influenced such that an electroencephalogram (EEG) reading will show an increase brainwave activity at 8 Hz range, in the upper theta, lower alpha band.

 

Binaural beats and neural entrainment

One of the problems inherent in any scientific investigation conducted in order to ascertain whether brainwaves can entrain to the frequency of an acoustic stimulus is that human subjects rarely hear frequencies below 20 Hz, which is exactly the range of Delta, Theta, Alpha, and low to mid Beta brainwaves.^[86][87] Among the methods by which some investigations have sought to overcome this problem is to measure electroencephalogram (EEG) readings of a subject while he or she listens to binaural beats. Subsequent to such investigations, there is significant evidence to show that such listening precipitates auditory driving by which ensembles of cortical neurons entrain their frequencies to that of the binaural beat, with associated changes in self-reported subjective experience of emotional and cognitive state.^{[88][89][90][91][92][93][94][95][96][97][98][99][100][101][102][103]}

 

Binaural beats and music

Many of the aforementioned reports are based on the use of auditory stimuli that combines binaural beats with other sounds, including music and verbal guidance. This consequently precludes the attribution of any influence on or positive outcome for the listener specifically to the perception of the binaural beats.^[104] Very few studies have sought to isolate the effect of binaural beats on listeners. However, initial findings in one experiment suggest that listening to binaural beats may exert an influence on both Low Frequency and High

Frequency components of heart rate variability, and may increase subjective feelings of relaxation.^[105]
Notwithstanding this problem, a review of research findings suggest that listening to music and sound can modulate autonomic arousal through entrainment of neural oscillations. Furthermore, music generally, and rhythmic patterns, such as those produced by percussive performance including drumming specifically, have been shown to influence arousal ergotropically and trophotropically, increasing and decreasing arousal respectively.^[106] Such auditory stimulation has been demonstrated to improve immune function, facilitate relaxation, improve mood, and contribute to the alleviation of stress.^{[107][108][109][110][111][112][113][114]}

Meanwhile, the therapeutic benefits of listening to sound and music, whether or not the outcome can be attributed to neural entrainment, is a well-established principle upon which the practice of receptive music therapy is founded. The term 'receptive music therapy' denotes a process by which patients or participants listen to music with specific intent to therapeutically benefit; and is a term used by therapists to distinguish it from 'active music therapy' by which patients or participants engage in producing vocal or instrumental music.^[115]

Receptive music therapy is an effective adjunctive intervention suitable for treating a range of physical and mental conditions.^[116]

Meanwhile, the evident changes in neural oscillations precipitated by listening to music, which are demonstrable through electroencephalogram (EEG) measurements,^{[117][118][119][120][121][122]} have contributed to the development of neurologic music therapy, which uses music and song as an active and receptive intervention, to contribute to the treatment and management of disorders characterized by impairment to parts of the brain and central nervous system, including stroke, traumatic brain injury, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, cerebral palsy, Alzheimer's disease, and autism.^{[123][124][125]}

 

Non ordinary states of consciousness

Main article: Altered state of consciousness

Historically, music generally, and percussive performance specifically was and remains integral to ritual ceremony and spiritual practice among early and indigenous peoples and their descendants, where it is often used to induce the non ordinary state of consciousness (NOSC) believed by participants to be a requisite for communication with spiritual energies and entities.^[126][127]

While there is no scientific evidence for existence of such energy or entities, and thereby nor the human capacity to communicate with them, the findings of some contemporary research suggests that listening to rhythmic sounds, especially percussion, can induce the subjective experience of a non ordinary states of consciousness (NOSC), with correlating electroencephalogram (EEG) profiles comparable to those associated with some forms of meditation, while also increasing the susceptibility to hypnosis.^{[128][129][130][131]} Specifically, some investigations show that the electroencephalogram (EEG) readings attained while a subject is meditating are comparable to those taken while he or she is listening to binaural beats, characterized by increased activity in the Alpha and Theta bands.^{[132][133][134][135][136]}

 

See also

• Brainwave entrainment
• Frequency following response
• Electroencephalography
• Neural oscillation

 

References

McConnell, P. A., Froeliger, B., Garland, E. L., Ives, J. C., & Sforzo, G. A., Auditory driving of the autonomic nervous system: Listening to theta-frequency binaural beats post-exercise increases parasympathetic activation and sympathetic withdrawal. Frontiers in Psychology, Vol. 5, p2014.

Draganova R., Ross B., Wollbrink A., Pantev C. (2008). Cortical steady-state responses to central and peripheral auditory beats. Cerebral Cortex Vol. 18, 2008, pp1193–1200.

Stumpf, C., Binaurale Tonmischung, Mehrheitsschwelle und Mitteltonbildung, Zeitschrift für Psychologie Vol. 75, 1916, pp330-350.

Wade, N. J. and Ono, H., From dichoptic to dichotic: historical contrasts between binocular vision and binaural hearing, Perception Vol. 34, 2005, pp645-668.

Beyer, R. T., Sounds of Our Times: Two Hundred Years of Acoustics. Mellville, NY: American Institute of Physics, 1998.

Alison, S. S., On the differential stethophone, and some new phenomena observed by it, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 9,1859, pp196-209.

Wells, W. C., An Essay upon Single Vision with two Eyes: together with Experiments and Observations on several other Subjects in Optics. London: Cadell, 1792.

Wade, N. J., Destined for Distinguished Oblivion: The Scientific Vision of William Charles Wells (1757-1817). New York, NY: Kluwer-Plenum, 2003.

Venturi, J. B., Considérations sur la connaissance de l’étendue que nous donne le sens de l’ouïe,”Magasin Encyclopédique, ou Journal des Sciences, des Lettres et des Arts 3, 1796, pp29-37.

Venturi, J. B., Betrachtungen über die Erkenntniss des Raums durch den Sinn des Gohörs,” Magazin für den neuesten Zustand der Naturkunde 2, 1800, pp1-16.

Venturi, J. B., Riflessioni sulla conoscenza dello spazio, che noi possiamo ricavar dall’udito, in Indagine Fisica sui Colori by G. Venturi (Tipografica, Modena), 1801, pp. 133-149.

Venturi, J. B., Betrachtungen über die Erkenntniss der Entfernung, die wir durch das Werkzeug des Gehörs erhalten,” Archiv für die Physiologie 5, 1802, pp383-392.

Venturi, J. B., Riflessioni sulla conoscenza dello spazio, che noi possiamo ricavar dall’udito, in Indagine Fisica sui Colori by G. Venturi (Tipografica, Modena), 1801, pp. 133-149.

Venturi, J. B., Betrachtungen über die Erkenntniss der Entfernung, die wir durch das Werkzeug des Gehörs erhalten,” Archiv für die Physiologie 5, 1802, pp383-392.

Chladni, E. F. F., Entdeckungen über die Theorie des Klanges. Leipzig : Weidmanns Erben und Reich, 1787.

Chladni, E. F. F., Die Akustik. Leipzig: Breitkopf und Härtel, 1802.

Chladni, E. F. F., Traité d’Acoustique (Paris: Courcier, 1809.

Seebeck, A., Beiträge zur Physiologie des Gehör- und Gesichtssinnes, Annalen der Physik und Chemie Vol. 68, 1846, pp449-465.

Wade, N. J., Destined for Distinguished Oblivion: The Scientific Vision of William Charles Wells (1757-1817). New York, NY: Kluwer-Plenum, 2003.

Wade, N. J., A Natural History of Vision, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998.

Wade, N. J. and Ono, H., From dichoptic to dichotic: historical contrasts between binocular vision and binaural hearing, Perception Vol. 34, 2005, pp645-668.

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Further reading

• Thaut, M. H., Rhythm, Music, and the Brain: Scientific Foundations and Clinical Applications (Studies on New Music Research). New York, NY: Routledge, 2005.
• Berger, J. and Turow, G. (Eds.), Music, Science, and the Rhythmic Brain : Cultural and Clinical Implications. New York, NY: Routledge, 2011.

 

External links

• Binaural Beats at the Library for Auditory Neuroscience in Music and Medicine